
IVHN H 




im 



ERRATA. 



Page iii, 8lh line, read devoted for denoted. 

" vii, 7th ' " if h\& first operations — 

" 16, 6th '• " the sound, for his sound. 

" 20, 13th " " hand for head. 

" 60, second paragraph, 3d line, read distnrb, 
for distrust. 

" 61, 3d line from bottom of page, read repro- 
duction for reproductive. 



THE 



SENTENCE METHOD 

OF TEACHING 

Eealii, WritiflE aM Spellii. 



A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS, 



BY 



GEORGE L. FARNHAM, M. A., 

Superintendent of Schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa; 

Late Superintendent of Schools at Bing- 

hamton and Syracuse, N. Y. 



^ MAY 7^ ;883' 



;kin^ 



SYBACUSE, N. Y. : 

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER. 

1881. 



v^^r^- 



Copyright, 1881, by C, W. Bardeen 



PREFACE. 



In his experience as teacher and super- 
intendent of schools, it became evident to 
the author, many years ago, that there was 
something fundamentally wrong in the or- 
dinary methods of teaching reading, writ- 
ing and spelling. Viewed from the stand- 
point of economy, the result bore no just 
ratio to the time and effort denoted to these 
branches ; and viewed from the stand-point 
of education, the first years of instruction 
seemed imperfect and unsatisfactory. This 
conviction, which he shared with many 
teachers throughout the country, led to ex- 
amination and experiment. 

In 1858, the phonetic system was intro- 
duced into the schools of Syracuse, ^N". Y., 
and for a time it was thought that the true 
method of teaching children to read had 
been discovered. After a trial of five 



iv The Sentence Method. 

years, however, it was seen that while 
pupils learned to read by this method in 
much less time than usual, and attained a 
high state of excellence in articulation, 
their reading was nearly as mechanical as 
before, and few of them became good 
spellers. The two systems of analysis, 
phonic and graphic, had so little in com- 
mon that permanent confusion was pro- 
duced in the mind. 

The word method, next tried, was much 
more productive of good results than any 
that had preceded it ; yet by this method 
words were treated as units, independent 
of sentences, and reading almost of neces- 
sity became a series of independent pro- 
nunciations, perpetuating the mechanical 
results of the old methods. 

These experiments and their results led 
to further investigation, especially in the 
line of psychology. From a close observa- 
tion of the action of the mind, and of the 
relations of language to thought, it was 
seen that the unit of thinking is a thought, 
and therefore that the unit of expression is 



Preface. v 

a sentence. The obvious deduction was, 
that the sentence ought to be made the 
basis of reading exercises. 

In 1870 a series of experiments was in- 
stituted in the schools of Binghamton, N. 
Y., to subject this theory to a practical 
test. The results far exceeded expectation 
in the direct teaching of reading, spelling 
and writing, and led to other results in 
awakening mind and in influencing conduct 
which were unexpected and gratifying. It 
is safe to assume that the problem, how to 
teach these branches successfully, has been 
solved. 

This little manual is substantially a rec- 
ord of the plans adopted, and of the prin- 
ciples involved in these experiments at 
Binghamton, It is published with the 
hope that it may prove a help to those who 
have no time or opportunity for original 
experiment, and an incentive to further 
investigation in this direction. 

The author would hereby express his ob- 
ligations to his friend James Johonnot, for 
valuable assistance in the final preparation 



vi The Sentence Method. 

of this work. The large experience of this 
gentleman as an educator, and his sound 
judgment in all matters of education,Vere 
constantly laid under contribution when 
this problem was worked out. 
• Council Bluffs, Iowa, January 1, 1881. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Goethe says, " Let no man think he can 
conquer the errors of his youth. If he has 
grown up in enviable freedom, surrounded 
with beautiful and worthy objects ; if his 
masters have taught him what he first ought 
to know for more easily comprehending 
what follows ; if his operations ' have been 
so guided that, without altering his habits, 
he can more easily accomplish what is 
excellent in the future; then such a one 
will lead a purer, a more perfect and hap- 
pier life than another man who has wasted 
his youth in opposition and error." 

This statement is an admirable summary^ 
of our most advanced ideas concerning ed- 
ucation. In our educational processes we 
have but to ascertain the manner and or- 
dei' in the use of intellectual faculties and 
powers in performing real life work, and 



viii The Sentence Method. 

then guide and direct the study of the 
youth, that they may acquire the use of 
their powers in the same manner and order. 

Some years since, while engaged in a 
business that brought me in contact with 
large numbers of literary, business and pro- 
fessional men, I instituted a series of enqui- 
ries in regard to their habits of reading, 
writing and spelling. From the answers 
received several items of interest were 
evolved. 

• First. Spelling. My question was 
*' When in doubt in regard to the spelling 
of a word, how do you assure yourself ? " 
The answer, in substance, was, '' I write 
the word, and when it looks right I assume 
it is correct." Upon further questioning, 
they were unanimous in the statement that 
they had adopted this method as a necessity 
after they had left school and entered upon 
the active duties of life. Only three or 
four, out of some hundreds questioned, 
thought of the word as they had learned it 
from the spelling book, ^nd these were 
teachers. 



Inteoduction. . ix 

Second. Reading. In regard to reading 
I found that most c>f those who had 
learned to read in school were slow readers, 
pronouncing the words mentally, if not 
aloud. Many found it difficult to take 
in the author's meaning without pronounc- 
ing the words audibly. On the other 
hand, those who had learned to read at an 
early period before attending school, and 
many of whom could not remember the 
time they could not read, were rapid read- 
ers. Their eye would pass over the page 
with little or no consciousness of the words, 
and they would take in the thought of the 
author much more rapidly than if the 
words were pronounced. These persons 
had acquired the art of reading without 
conscious effort on their part or on the part 
of others. Such persons could always 
spell, and they were able to detect a mis- 
spelled word in the most rapid reading. 
They, also, were usually fluent writers. 

Third. Penmanship. The results of 
observation and inquiry in regard to pen- 
manship were equally interesting. Per- 



X The Sentence Method. 

sons who do much of original composition 
are seldom good penmen. I have never 
found a person who composed in the hand 
taught and practised in school. Most who 
practised some one of the conventional 
systems for years in schools, abandoned it 
when called to perform real work, only to 
acquire a hand ugly in appearance, and 
difficult to decipher. 

The conclusions drawn from these facts 
are : — 

First. That the methods in spelling 
and penmanship, upon which so much time 
and labor have been bestowed in the school, 
are laid aside the moment the student en- 
ters upon the active duties of life ; and 
that for the performance of these duties he 
is obliged to form new habits under the 
most unfavorable circumstances. 

Second. There is sufficient uniformity 
in the methods practised in after life, and 
'adopted without instruction or consulta- 
tion, to warrant the assumption that they 
are best adapted to real work, and therefore 
should receive attention from educators. 



Introduction. xi 

Third. That in reading, the work of 
the school, with all its rules and systems, is 
immeasurably inferior in results to the un- 
systematized and incidental work of the 
home. 

Fourth. That where habits have been 
established by school drill they often prove 
hinderances rather than helps, and ever 
after there is vain endeavor to escape from 
their thraldom. 

It is in view of these facts, more or less 
distinctly recognized, that experiments are 
being extensively made to bring our 
schools more into harmony with the real 
activities of mature years, to give to the 
pupil not only the tools of knowledge, but 
the mastering of the use of these tools in 
the discovery of knowledge and its appli- 
cation to human purposes, precisely as he 
must do in any vocation to which he may 
apply himself. 

The design of this manual is to aid in 
this work. It is hoped it may prove a help 
to many teachers who have long been con- 
scious of the defects of the old systems,. 



xii The Sentence Method. 

but have not liad time or opportunity to 
work out a method satisfactory to them- 
selves. The methods here presented are 
not merely theoretical. They were elabor- 
ated after careful study, and then subject- 
ed to experiment and correction, and as here 
given they are such as have survived the 
ordeal and have borne abundant fruit. 

It is believed that parents will find here 
a simple process of teaching reading, writ- 
ing and composition to their children which 
will cause little interruption of their daily 
duties. Indeed the well regulated home is 
without doubt the very best primary school. 



THE SENTENCE METHOD 

OF TEACHING 

Reading, Writing and Spelling. 



CHAPTER I. 



fm^T ^F^IJMCIPLE^. 

Definition. Eeading consists : — first, in 
gaining the thoughts of an author from 
written or printed language : — second, in 
giving oral expression to these thoughts in 
the language of the author, so that the 
same thoughts are conveyed to the hearer. 

It is important that this two-fold func- 
tio of reading should be fully recognized. 
The first, or silent reading, is the funda- 
mental process. It is often called " Eead- 
ing to one's self," a phrase significant as 
indicating a wrong conception of the true 



14 The Sentence Method. 

end to be accomplished. The second, o- 
ral reading, or "reading aloud," is en- 
tirely subordinate to silent reading. 
While oral expression is subject to laws of 
its own, its excellence depends upon the 
success of the reader in comprehending the 
thought of the author. The importance of 
these distinctions is so great that I will con- 
sider them in detail. 

Sileut, or Eye Beading. It is scarcely 
possible to exaggerate the importance of 
correct " eye reading ; " — of the ability to 
look over the written or printed page, and, 
with the least possible consciousness of the 
words used, to" fully comprehend the 
thoughts expressed. 

A common process is indicated by the 
expression, " reading to one's self." This 
means the translation of written into oral 
language. The reader either pronounces 
each word so that he can actually hear it, 
or he thinks of the pronunciation. In 
either case the thought is not formed in his 
mind directly through the written language, 
but indirectly after the written words have 



FmsT Principle. 15 

been changed into oral expression. This 
process is slow and laborious, it becomes 
painful when long continued ; and its prac- 
tice will account for the antipathy which 
so many persons have to reading books and 
articles of considerable length. 

The object in teaching should be to make 
every pupil an eye reader, — to give him 
the ability to look directly through the 
written expression to the meaning, or to at 
once detect the unknown elements that 
prevent the accomplishment of this object. 

A New Use of the Eye. The ordinary 
function of the eye is to take in the visible 
characteristics of objects. This is the use 
to which all children have become accus- 
tomed, and they form jude^ments in accord- 
ance with perfect confidence. 'No child 
doubts his ability to distinguish his friends, 
his toys, or any object to which he may di- 
rect his attention. Through this sense, 
aided by touch, he comes into possession 
of most of his knowledge of the ex- 
ternal world. The knowledge so obtained 
is direct and tangible. 



16 The Sentence Method. 

With liearing it is different. While the 
ear recognizes sound as sound, it has been 
accustomed from the earliest period to rec- 
ognize thought through the sound of oral 
language, until the thought becomes pri- 
mary in one's consciousness, and his sound of 
the language secondary. Indeed, language 
becomes so purely representative of thought, 
that, as sound, it scarcely appeals to con- 
sciousness. The child associates speech 
with thoughts divined from his experience, 
and never regards it as having a separate 
existence. The words he hears quicken 
thought into conscious activity, and he in 
turn is impelled to express his thought by 
the use of words. 

The child has come into possession of 
his powers, both of thought and of ex- 
pression, by a gradual and unconscious pro- 
cess. He has simply been shaped by his 
surroundings. By association with those 
who talk, he has acquired the power of 
understanding speech and of speaking. 
The kind of speech, whether perfect or 
imperfect, which he hears he reproduces. 



First Principles. 17 

This fact should be distinctly understood 
and realized. The powers of speech and of 
understanding what is said, both come to 
the child by a process so simple and natural 
that he is conscious of no effort to acquire 
them. Speech, objectively considered, is 
only a combination of sounds uttered in 
quick succession, having not the slightest 
resemblance to the thoughts represented ; 
but by the child it is understood with exact- 
ness and uttered with precision. The 
whole complicated process is matured with- 
out effort, and without the intervention of 
teachers. 

To make the eye perform the office of 
the ear, and the hand that of the organs of 
voice, is the problem that presents itself 
in attempting to teach a child to read and 
to write. The vital point is to so change 
the function of the eye that it will look 
upon written or printed characters, not as 
objects to be recognized for their own sake, 
but as directly calling into conscious being 
past experiences, and so becoming repre- 
sentative of thought. All the efforts of 



18 The Sentence Method. 

the teacher should be directed to this 
end. 

At this point our education has often 
failed. The process of translating the 
written language into speech is so slow and 
difficult that a large share of the pupils of 
our schools are condemaed to comparative 
ignorance. The words as they a]3pear have 
no meaning to them. One who acquired 
the power of directly receiving thought 
from the printed page, • is endowed with a 
new intellectual faculty. His eye flashes 
along the pages of a book, and he compre- 
hends whole sentences at a glance. It 
would not do to say that these rapid read- 
ers do not understand what they read. 
The fact is they understand much better 
than the slow reader. The mental power, 
being relieved from the necessity of trans- 
lating, concentrates itself upon the thought, 
and the thought is understood and remem- 
bered. Our endeavor should be to give 
pupils this power of eye reading from the 
first, so that they may continually profit 



First Principles. 19 

by it, and have na evil habits to over- 



come 



Oral Reading. When the habit of 
sight-reading is acquired, oral reading will 
need but little attention. The oral expression 
IS subordinate to correct eje-reading, and 
Its acquisition is largely incidental. When 
the pupil has power to take in the thoughts 
from the printed page directly, he will 
liave but little difficulty in giving it proper 
oral expression in the language of the au- 
thor The pupil, being under the control 
o± the thought obtained, must read the 
thought as naturally as he speaks. 

In oral reading there are always two 
parties, the readers and the hearers. It is 
as important that pupils should be taught 
to obtain thoughts by listening as by read- 
ing; and to this end the other members of 
the class should close their books while 
one is reading, the test of the value of the 
exercise being their ability to reproduce the 
thoughts which they have heard. 

Writing, While the pupil is acquiring 
this new use of the eye, and learning to 



20 The Sentence Method. 

read in the true significance of that term, 
he should be taught to write. This 
process is simply the production of the 
forms which represent thought, and w^hich 
quicken thought in him. While silent 
reading is analogous to obtaining thought 
from the speech of others, writing is anala- 
gous to conveying thought by speech to 
others. It should be so presented to the 
pupil that he acquires it unconsciously 
while endeavoring to express his thought, 
and the exercise should be continued until 
the habit is formed of the head responding 
as directly as the voice to the processes of 
mind and to the mandates of the will. 

First Principle. The first principle to 
be observed in teaching written lan- 
guage, is, "that things are cognized as 
wholes." Language follows this law. 
Although it is to be taught by an indirect 
process, still, in its external characteristics, 
it follows the laws of other objects. 

The question arises, what is the whole ? 
or what is the unit of expression ? It is 
now quite generally conceded that we have 



First Principles. 21 

no ideas not logically associated with 
others. In other words, thoughts, complete in 
their relations, are the materials in the 
mind out of which complex relations are 
constructed. 

It being admitted that the thought is 
the unit of thinking, it necessarily follows 
that the sentence is the unit of exj>ression. 
One may assure himself of the correctness 
of this view by watching the operations 
of a little child, even before it is able 
to talk. You give such a child any direc- 
tion which you expect will control its ac- 
tion, and leave out any part of the sentence 
that is essential to its completeness, and 
the child will not be influenced by it. It 
is true that elliptical expressions are some- 
times used, but the missing portions are 
supplied in the mind, before action is pro- 
duced. Let any one attempt to remember 
a series of words so arranged as to express 
no complete thought, and he will see how 
absolutely we are dependent upon the logi- 
cal arrangement of language. A speaker 
will have no difficulty in making himself 



22 The Sentence Method. 

understood in any part of a large room, if 
he addresses the andience in connected and 
logical discourse. No one listening will be 
conscious of losing a single word of what 
is said. But let the same speaker attempt 
to read the names of a dozen persons, or 
give a list of disconnected words, and he 
will hardly be able to pronounce them 
with sufficient distinctness to be understood, 
without repetition. 

Second Principle. A second principle 
is, we acquire a knowledge of the farts of 
an object by first considering it as a whole. 
Repeated recognitions reveal the character- 
istics of the whole, so as to separate it from 
other things. We descend from the con- 
templation of the whole to the parts that 
compose the whole. Otherwise the parts 
would be more distinctly remembered than 
the whole. But this is contrary to exj^eri- 
ence. We have no difficulty in distinguish- 
ing one person from another, but if called 
Xipon to state exactly in what this difference 
consists, we shall be at a loss for a satisfac- 



First Principles. 23 

tory reply, unless we have made the matter 
an object of special attention. 

That words are no exception to this rule 
is obvious from the almost universal prac- 
tice of writing out the word and looking 
at it as a whole to determine whether it is 
properly spelled. We have more confi- 
dence in our judgment of the appearance 
of a word as a whole, than upon our ability 
to reproduce it in detail, notwithstanding 
this latter method is the one in which we 
have been drilled. 

The sentence, when properly taught, will, 
in like manner, be understood as a whole, 
better than if j)resented in detail. The 
order indicated is, first the sentence, then 
the words, and then the letters. The sen- 
tence being first presented as a whole, the 
words are discovered, and after that the let- 
ters composing the words. 

Third Principle. The third principle 
is that while language, oral and written, 
follows the laws of other objects so far as 
its material characteristics are concerned, 



24: The Sentence Method. 

it differs from other objects studied for 
their own sake, by being only representa- 
tive in its character. While it is to be 
recognized, it must be so recognized as to 
make the thought expressed by it the con 
jscious object of attention. 

In oral speech this is already the case. 
The written language is to be so acquired 
that the same results will follow. To do 
this, it must be taught by an indirect pro- 
cess. The language must be learned while 
the attention is directed to the thought it 
represents. 

RECAPITULATION. 

First — Things are recognized as wholes. 

Second — Parts are recognized while con- 
templating the wholes. 

Third — The whole or unit in language is 
the sentence. 

Fourth — Words, as parts of a sentence, 
are discovered while recognizing the sen- 
tence. 

Fifth — Letters are discovered while con- 
templating words. 



First Principles. 25 

Sixth — Language, especially written lan- 
guage, is to be learned indirectly, while the 
attention is directed to the thought ex- 
pressed. 

Practical Hints. Before attempting 
reading, a child should be able to use lan- 
guage in conversation with considerable 
care and fluency. Few children attain this 
power before the age of six years. The 
child must also be made to feel at home in 
the school room and in presence of his 
teacher. Without this freedom from re- 
straint, the teacher can never judge cor- 
rectly concerning the mental condition of 
the child. The timidity and self -conscious- 
ness of pupils when first entering school, 
cannot be overcome by direct teaching. 
The change of condition from home to 
school should be made as slight as possible, 
and the teacher should study to enter into 
the thoughts and feelings of the child. 
"When sympathy is fully established be- 
tween teacher and pupil, and the pupil feels 
as unrestrained as at home, the conditions 
for successful teaching are secured. 



26 The Sentence Method. 

The class should be as devoid of formal- 
ity and constraint as is consistent with the 
successful working of the school. Order 
for order's sake is not desirable. Kequir- 
ing the pupils to "toe the mark" or to as- 
sume any precise attitude distracts their at- 
tention from the lesson in hand, and tends 
to make machines of them and to deprive 
them of all spontaneity in action. 

Children of ordinary health and intelli- 
gence are always active. To compel quiet 
for any considerable time is to do violence 
to child nature. Neglecting to provide for 
natural and necessary exercise is to convert 
the school room into a prison house. The 
mistake is often made of making education 
consist of repression instead of develop- 
ment, and natural, activities indispensible 
to high achievements are ruthlessly sacri- 
ficed to an ideal discipline, where quiet 
must be maintained at all hazards. 

Slates and pencils are acknowledged 
necessities, and as the child acquires the use 
of his powers they will be in constant ac- 
quisition. Provision should also be made 



First Principles. 2T 

for the unconstrained exercise of the pu- 
pils, that will interest them and not dis- 
turb the school. A vacant corner in the 
school room, or a platform raised a few 
inches above the floor and supplied with 
blocks for the children to play with would 
meet this demand. Building blocks may 
be easily and cheaply obtained by taking a 
common board dressed on both sides, three- 
fourths of an inch thick, and sawing it 
into strips one and one half inches wide. 
These strips should then be sawed into 
pieces three inches long, giving to the 
blocks the relative proportion of bricks. A 
few pieces should be left six inches long, 
and a few of the common blocks sawed in 
two, to give variety to the combinations- 
made. 



CHAPTER II. 



JJXEF(CI^E^ !]pEFOI^E ^^OOK^ ARE "y^ED. 

FIEST STEP. 

The object of this step is to awaken 
thought in the mind of the child by means 
of objects, and to give to the thought com- 
plete oral expression. 

The teacher should be provided with a 
number of objects such as may be readily 
handled. At first those only should be 
used that w411 admit of the use of the arti- 
cle a before the name. 

With objects in Hand. First — Let the 
teacher and each pupil take an object in 
liand. 

The teacher will call upon one of the 
pupils to tell what he has, and in reply the 
pupil will probably hold up the object and 
pronounce its name. 



Preliminaey Exercises. 29 

Teacher—'' Jane, what have you ? " 
Jwne — " A penciL" 
Teacher—''' Who has a pencil \ " 
Jane — ''I have." 

Teacher—" Now tell me all about it." 
J'an<?— "I have got a pencil." 
j^eacher—" Very well ! But will one of 
you tell me what he has, and leave out the 
word' got r" 

Charles—" I have a knife." 
Teacher— "T\\^i is right. Now Jane 
will try again. Tell me what you have." 
Jane—" I have a pencil." 
It is best to secure the proper expression 
from the children, though it may take some 
time. But if the teacher fails in this, she 
will hold up her own object, and say, " I 
have a book." Then call upon one of the 
children who will very likely respond prop- 
erly, "I have a knife." 

The form of expression once obtained, 
there will be very little difficulty in obtain- 
ing similar expressions from each member 



30 The Sentence Method. 

of the class. Let each hold up his object 
and tell what he- has. This done, let the 
children change objects, and repeat the ex- 
ercise, telling what each one has. 

Second — Next let two or three children 
take hold of the same object, and let one 
of them make the statement, ^' We have a 
doll." 

At first, the children may be inclined to 
continue the old form of expression, and 
the teacher may be obliged to take hold of 
the object and make the proper statement, 
but the children will readily take the hint. 
Now, vary this form with the first, until 
the children will instantly respond with 
the proper ex23ression. 

Tiiird — Let one pupil hold an object and 

call upon another to make the statement. 

If a boy has the object, the response will 

be "He has a knife;" if a girl, "She has a 

'pencil." 

Fourth — The teacher will hold an object, 
and the pupil will make the statement to 
the teacher, " You have a map." 



Preliminary Exercises. 31 

Fifth — Two or more members of the 
class will hold an object, and one of the 
others will make the statement to the 
teacher, or to the remaining members of 
the class, " Thej have a book." 

These forms of expression will be re- 
peated and changed in their order until 
there is no confusion or tendency to error 
in expression. The children should in- 
stantly respond with the appropriate ex- 
pression. 

Each teacher will select such objects as 
the circumstances may require. The fol- 
lowing list may serve as a hint to the kind 
of objects which may be used. When the 
object cannot be used, a toy or picture rep- 
resenting it may be substituted. 

Book, slate, pencil, paper, knife, string, 
board, chalk, desk, seat, table^ door, win- 
dow, hat, cap, boot, shoe, clock, watch, 
doll, knife, match, wood, stove, girl, boy, 
man, woman, house, barn, dog, cat, cow, 
horse, rat, pig, sheep, glass, nail, etc. 

In regard to words other than the names 



32 The Sentence Method. 

of familiar objects, the book which is to 
be used should be taken as a guide. 

With the Object in Sight. First, 
Place an object before the class, and 
call upon a child to tell what he sees, 
and he will respond, " I see a hat." 

Let another speak for himself and his 
companions with " We see a clock." In- 
troduce the other pronouns with the verb 
see, as in the previous exercises. Next 
introduce other verbs. A girl walks across 
the floor, and the expression, "She walks," is 
elicited. A boy will run, and the expres- 
sion, " He runs," will be obtained. 

Second. Introduce the names of the dif- 
ferent members of the class, and use them, 
in the place of the pronouns in the pre- 
vious exercises. Secure variety by using 
different verbs, as, " John sees the clock," 
'' Susan heard the watch tick," " James ran. 
home." 

Third. Call attention to qualities of ob- 
jects and secure the appropriate expression, 
as, " John has a large book," " Jennie has^ 
a white cat," " The black dog barks." 



Preliminary Exercises. 33 

The following list of qualifying adjec- 
tives is given by way of suggestion. 

Black, white, red, yellow, blue, green, 
brown, large, small, little, big, good, bad, 
lazy, bright, tall, short, hard, soft, rough, 
smooth, pleasant, light, heavy, dark, etc. 

Fourth. Call attention to the position of 
objects, and secure the proj)er expression, 
as, "The book is on the table," "The 
slate is under the desk," " The bird flew 
over the tree." Continue this exercise until 
the more common prepositions have been 
used. 

With two or more objects, expressions 
containing conjunctions and the plural form 
of verbs may be obtained, as, "A slate and 
book are on the table," " John and Charles 
run," etc. 

In general, any form of expression in 
common use may be obtained from the 
children by forming the proper concrete 
relations. These exercises constitute les- 
sons in constructive language or compo- 
sition, and should be continued until the 



34 The Sentence Method. 

children respond readily with the expres- 
sion representing the exact relations of the 
things to which their attention is called. 

This exercise may be varied by intro- 
ducing object lessons with such simple de- 
scriptions as the children themselves will 
give. The children should also be en- 
couraged to tell in complete sentences what 
they see out of school, on their way to and 
from school, and at home. They should 
give accounts of any interesting event 
which has happened to them, or which 
they may have observed. These exercises 
are especially valuable as preparing for 
the next step. 

SECOND STEP. 

The object of this step is to awaken in 
the mind of the child the exact thought 
contained in oral expression, and to lead 
him to make the appropriate concrete rep- 
resentation. 

In observation we pass from the thought 
to the expression ; in reading, from the ex- 
pression to the thought. This step is to 



Preliminary Exercises. 35 

make clear that thought may be obtained 
from .oral expression, as preparatory to the 
final step of obtaining thoughts from 
written expression. 

The teacher will make a statement as " I 
have a knife," and will then ask ? '^ What 
do I have ? " 

Pupil — " You have a knife." 

TeacJier — '^How do you know that I 
have a knife ? " 

Pupil — " You said so." 

The teacher will show the knife to con- 
firm the statement. 

The teacher will next call upon different 
members of the class to state what each 
has, confining the inquiries at first to ob- 
jects on hand, and producing the object to 
confirm the statement. 

Passing away from visible objects the 
children may be called upon to tell what 
they have at home. John may say " I have 
a large black dog," and Jane, " I have a 
nice doll." The thoughts formed in the 
minds of the children are as vivid and as 



36 The Sentence Method. 

true, as tliOHgh verified by the production 
of the real object. 

This step is a short one, and will require 
only a few exercises to accomplish its ob- 
ject. 

THIED STEP. 

The object of this step is to awaken in 
the mind of the child the exact thought 
contained in written expression, and to en- 
able him to express the thought in the 
language used. This is Reading. 

While of necessity, in reading, the expres- 
sion precedes the thought, no lesson will 
be a success where the expression fails to 
awaken the thought. The order in the 
third step is the same as in the second, 
with the substitution of written for oral 
expression. 

The teacher goes to the board, and in a 
clear bold hand writes a sentence, as : "I 
have a knife." The pupils see the writing 
but of course do not know what it means. 
The teacher will call a pupil and put a 
knife into his hands, and the pupil, in re- 



Preliminaey Exercises. 37 

sponse to the impulse which is the result 
of previous training will instantly hold up 
the knife and say " I have a knife." 

The teacher writes another sentence, as, 
"I have a- pencil," and puts the object 
in the hands of another child who will re- 
spond, '' I have a pencil." 

The teacher will proceed in the same 
way until several children have objects 
in their hands, representing as many senten- 
ces upon the board. 

The teacher will next call upon the first 
child to point out and read his sentence, 
which he will readily do as he still holds 
the object in his hand. 

Each child, in turn, will be called upon 
to point out and read his particular sen- 
tence. When several are written upon the 
board, some child may forget which repre- 
sents his statement, in which c • se the teach- 
er will take the pointer and pass it over the 
sentence from left to right. The child 
will point out the sentence in the same 
manner, at the same time giving the oral 



38 The Sentence Method. 

expression. The pupil should not be al- 
lowed to guess, but when he hesitates, the 
teacher should point out the sentence for 
him. 

]S(ext, the pupils may exchange objects, 
and point out the sentences that express 
the new order of things under the same 
condition as before. It may be necessary 
frequently to erase sentences before the 
lesson is finished, but this will prove a 
help rather than a hindrance, as the pupil 
will more readily observe and remember 
the sentences by seeing them written. 

These lessons are to be continued day 
after day, care being taken to vary the 
order and the objects, so that the children 
cannot recall the sentences by their location. 
The teacher's faith and patience may be 
severely tried, but steady progress is made. 
Each repetition strengthens and deepens 
the impression, until the association of the 
thought with its written representative is 
firmly made. 

The objects used should be kept upon a 



Preliminary Exercises. 3^ 

table in sight and reach of the pupils. 
When a new sentence is written, the 
teacher may hand the object to the child, 
or point it out, allowing the pupil to take it 
himself. By varying the exercise in this 
manner, great activity may be secured on 
the part of the class. 

A little further along the teacher may 
wait and give the pupils an opportunity to 
select the object without its being pointed 
out. When a child raises his hand and 
expresses a desire to do this, it shows that 
he has read the sentence, and is acting in 
obedience to the impulse occasioned by a 
comprehension of the thought. The oral 
reading follows as a natural consequence. 

The trying point is now past. One after 
another will follow the example of the 
first, and read the sentences as they are 
written, independent of aid from the 
teacher. The child will indicate that he 
has read the sentence by raising his hand, 
and then, when permission is given, by 
selecting the proper object and "making 



40 The Sentence Method. 

it true," as the cliildren express it, and by 
reading the sentence aloud with the object 
in hand. 

An emulation will probably by excited, 
and each child will try to be the first to 
read. This may lead to guess work on the 
part of the child, which the teacher will at 
once try to repress. The raising of the 
hand should be permitted only when the 
sentence has been read and the thought 
understood. 

It is an easy matter to raase a false 
enthusiasm, indicated by raising the hand, 
snapping the fingers, rising from the seat, 
and various exclamations. These manifes- 
tations should be repressed, and that real 
enthusiasm stimulated which comes from 
certainty of results. 

When a child reads a sentence from the 
board, he should indicate it by the pointer. 
At first the pupil will probably switch the 
pointer across the sentence and read it 
hurriedly at the same moment. These 
are symptoms of natural and healthful 



Preliminary Exercises. . 41 

action, indicating that the thought is in 
the mind, and that the sentence is the unit 
of expression. The motion and utterance 
are simply in obedience to the impulse to 
speak the sentence as a unit. A little 
experience will serve to correct all that 
needs correction. 

Tariety in Expression. In using the 
first form of the sentence, as, "I have 
a book," and changing the object, the ten- 
dency on the part of the pupils will be to 
look only to the final word to determine 
the sentence. This should be corrected by 
changing the subject as well. 

In the next changes, follow the order of 
the First Step, introducing cautiously the 
common pronouns, adjectives, verbs, prep- 
ositions and conjunctions. The names of 
the members of the class and the numerals 
up to ten should be early introduced. For 
suggestive lists, see' explanations under 
First Steps. 

Words are always used in their connec- 
tions and made familiar by repetition in 



42 The Sentence Method. 

the expression of various shades of thought. 

Analysis. Soon after children begin to 
read sentences, it will be found that they 
recognize individual words. From the 
study of the sentence as a whole they have 
discovered the elements or words of which 
the sentence is composed. 

The use the child makes of the words at 
this time is peculiar. He evidently recog- 
nizes them, but has no impulse to pro- 
nounce them separately, or at all, until the 
sense is complete in his own mind. If, 
when the sentence is written, a strange 
word be present, he will make no effort to 
read any part of it. When the unknown- 
word is explained and the sense thereby 
made complete he will read naturally and 
without hesitation. 

This is a most healthful indication, and 
is a sure guide to the teacher in regard to 
the steps to be taken. It points out the 
exact difficulty which the child encounters, 
and enables the teacher to remove the dif- 
ficulty with the greatest economy of time 



Preliminaky Exercises. 43 

and energy. The introduction of new 
words is placed entirely within the control 
of the teacher, and the vocabulary of the 
pupil may be extended in any desirable 
direction. Care must be taken that the 
more active pupils do not monopolize the 
time, depriving the other members of the 
class of their share of the benefit. 

As words become recognized as suchjand 
their meaning understood from their office 
in the sentence, it may be well to write 
them upon a section of the board set apart 
for that purpose, so that the pupils may 
refer to them in their constructive work, 
and be sure of the correct forms. These 
lists are for reference and no other pur- 
pose. 

Writing. Early in this step some, if 
not all, of the children will have the im- 
pulse to write. This should be encouraged. 
The first efforts will be directed to copying 
what they see written upon the board, but 
as the thought expressed is present in their 
minds the}^ are in reality writing to express 
their thoughts. The first productions will 



44 The Sentence Method. 

of necessity be rude, but bj a few judicious 
hints their muscles will be brought under 
proper control, principally through their 
own exertions. 

The slates should be ruled to serve as a 
guide to the size of the letters. A few 
directions may be given in regard to hold- 
ing the pen, the slant and size of letters, 
but not enough to distract the attention of 
the pupil from the thoughts he is endeavor- 
ing to express. In this way the children 
may attain great excellence in writing at an 
early period, and at the same time their 
penmanship will be as markedly individ- 
ual as their faces. 

Letters. While directing the writing 
the teacher will speak of the letters as 
though they were known to the pupils, 
showing the size of the m's, t's, I's, etc., 
and it will soon be discovered that the 
pupils can distinguish the letters and name 
them. This end has been accomplished 
without calling direct attention to them, 
and by the operation of the same mental 
laws that caused them to distinguish words. 



Preliminary Exercises. 45 

Teacher's Work. There should be no 
careless work on the part of the teacher. 
Educationally considered, there is no work 
more important than the constant use of 
the crayon on the part of the teacher in ex- 
pressing thought to the pupils. It bears 
the same relation to their writing, that the 
conversation which they hear most fre- 
quently does to their speech. If the 
methods in both speech and writing are 
correct, then correct habits will be formed ; 
but if the methods are incorrect, the habits 
formed will correspond, and no amount of 
subsequent drill will eradicate them. 

Everything written upon the board 
should therefore be absolutely correct in 
the following particulars : 

First — In spelling. 

Second — In the use of capitals. 

Third — In punctuation. 

Fourth — In grammatical construction. 

Fifth — In penmanship. 

Sixth — In^^form, such as indentations, 
margins, etc. 



46 The Sentence Method. 

Constructiye Work. One of the most 
important educational ends is the ability to 
express thought clearly and fluently in 
writing. By the method there given the 
pupils early acquire this ability, and though 
the thoughts at first are simple, the mode 
of expressing them may be made perfect. 
Writing compositions is made as natural 
and easy as conversation, and the practice 
of reading compositions will make true in- 
tellectual reading more easy and certain. 

Criticism. By this method, drill as it 
is commonly practised is entirely dispensed 
with. The thought is the first object of 
attention, and if this be clear, the express- 
ion will be natural and correct. Any ob- 
scurity, either from the use of a new word, 
from the construction of the sentence, or 
from not understanding the relations ex- 
pressed, will manifest itself in the inability 
of the child to read, or his giving express- 
ion to a different thought. 

The effort of the teacher in such cases 
must be directed to clearing up the 
thoughts. If the word is new and the 



Preliminary Exercises. 47 

idea familiar, calling attention to the idea 
will suggest the word or its equivalent. If 
the idea and the word are both new, the 
teacher must first develop the idea, cre- 
ating in the mind of the child the necessity 
for the word, and then give the word. 
The custom • of spending much time in 
" fishing for words " from the child is an 
absurd one. When the idea is fully de- 
veloped, the word should promptly be 
given, so that the two may be associated 
together. 

It is very easy to destroy the indepen- 
dence of the pupils and substitute mechani- 
cal for intellectual reading, by the teacher 
reading for the children to imitate, and by 
concert reading. Both should be avoided. 



CHAPTER III. 



l\Ey\DINq FROM i^OOKg. 

In the exercises so far, the end in view 
has been to prepare the child to enter upon 
the work of reading from the printed page. 
If the work indicated has been well done, 
the pnpil has obtained a considerable power 
of thought and expression ; he has learned 
to regard the completed sentence as the ex- 
23ression of thought, and as having no sig- 
nificance unless the thought is understood ; 
he has learned to read readily what is writ- 
ten, and he has acquired a considerable 
skill in the expression of his own thoughts, 
by crayon and pencil. If this has been ac- 
complished, he will have little difiiculty in 
changing from written to printed matter. 

Steps in Transition. Let the pupils 
look over some printed sentence made up 
of familiar words, and expressing a familiar 



Keading feom Books. 49 

thought, and if they experience any con- 
siderable difficulty in gaining the thought 
from the sentence, it will show that they 
are not ready for the change, and that 
written work should be continued. 

When the time arrives for the transition, 
the teacher should select some easy lesson, 
and carefully examine it to find the words 
that the pupils will probably not know. 
These words are then to be made the basis 
of blackboard exercises in which their 
memory is developed, and they are used in 
the expression of thought by the pupils. 
In a familiar, conversational way, the 
teacher may excite an interest in the sub- 
ject of the story, taking care not to tell the 
details so as to deprive the reading of the 
interest which comes from the new ideas 
obtained. 

The books are put into the hands of the 
children after they are assembled in class. 
Let all the members of the class look at the 
first sentence, and when ready let each one 
raise his hand. Should a familiar word not 



50 The Sentence Method. 

be recognized in its printed form, the 
teacher will write it upon the board. 

When all are ready the teacher will call 
upon one ''to tell what the book says." 
The sentence will probably be correctly 
read. If mistakes are made in the read- 
ing, it will be because the pupil does not 
understand the sentence. Proceed in the 
same manner with each sentence to the end 
of the lesson. 

If the class be large, the lesson may be 
read a second time by other members of 
the class, but care should be taken that the 
pnpils do not learn the leSeon by rote, and 
so repeat it without understanding. In- 
telligence is the key to good work, and 
should be the sole guide to expression. 

General Preparation. It will require 
but a few lessons to make the transition 
from the board and slate exercises to the 
book. When it is made and the pupils are 
able to readily read the printed words, the 
regular work for preparing each reading 
lesson should be in the following order : 

First — As in the transition exercises, the 



Reading from Books. 51 

teacher will become familiar with the les- 
son beforehand, and will give the books to 
the pupils after they are arranged in class. 
This is to assure freshness of thought in 
the lesson read. 

Second — The pupils will look over the 
lesson for unfamiliar words, and will indi- 
cate them to the teacher. As the object of 
the exercise is to gain the thought, new 
words must first become known. 

Third — The pupils will then close their 
books, and the teacher will develop the 
meaning of each word by questions and 
familiar conversation. 

Fourth — The pupils will use the new 
words in the construction of sentences, each 
one expressing a familiar thought. This 
kind of exercise -has already become familiar 
to the pupils in their previous work. 

Fifth — The new words, as their ideas 
are developed, will be written upon the 
board, so that the pupils may become 
familiar with their written forms. As each 
word is written it will be seen that the 



52 The Sentence Method. 

pupils will carefully scrutinize it, as though 
it was an object of interest. 

Sixth — Pupils look over each sentence 
carefully to see if they can understand 
the thought expressed. In case they ' do 
not, the teacher will develop and explain it. 

Seventh — The pupil reads. As the words 
are all known and the thoughts understood 
before the pupil tries to read aloud, his 
reading will probably be natural and cor- 
rect. 

Penmanship. The writing, begun with 
the board exercises, will be continued after 
books are introduced. The impulse to 
write comes from the desire to express 
thought to the eye, and the skill in the use 
of the pencil or pen is acquired under this 
stimulus. With the mechanic, the impulse 
which controls his muscles and gives direc- 
tion and force to his action, is the end to 
be accomplished. The knowledge of his 
tools is acquired indirectly and incidentally 
while using them. To withdraw his atten- 
tion from his work and fix it ujDon the 
tools would be fatal to the work. So with 



Eeading feom Books. 53 

the penmanship of the child. It should be 
acquired incidentally in the endeavor to 
express thought ; and turning the direct at- 
tention from the thought to the "writing, 
will be fatal to the highest success in writ- 
ing. ^ Intellectually, it would change a 
pleasing occupation into a mechanical and 
onerous task. 

As the child learns the use of speech 
long before he learns the grammatical rules 
that govern speech, so he learns practically 
how to express his thoughts in writing long 
before he is in a condition to be benefited 
by the rules of penmanship. A few gene- 
ral hints may be given from time to time, 
as indicated in the Third Step, but the 
pupil's progress will depend upon the 
amount of practice which he has in the 
direction pointed out. By this practice, 
his muscles are brought gradually under 
control,^ imperfections are eliminated, and 
the habit of correct writing is formed. 

Composition. The first lesson which 
the child received was in the formation and 
expression of thought, which was in reality 



64 The Sentence Method. 

oral composition. As soon as he acquires 
the ability to write legibly from copying 
the work from the board, he will begin to 
change his oral compositions into written 
ones. This constructive, written work will 
follow the same order, and accomj)any 
step by step the oral work already indi- 
cated. These first compositions furnish ex- 
cellent reading lessons, for no two being 
alike one reads for the information of the 
others, conforming to the practice in real 
life. 

Like all the other exercises in language, 
composition must not be taught directly, 
but success in it is attained incidentally in 
the endeavor to express thought. The 
ability of a child to use words correctly in 
oral or written composition is the only sure 
test of his understanding them. It re- 
quires far less familiarity with language to 
read mechanically, than it does to use the 
same language in the expression of our 
own thought. 

Subject-Matter. The first lessons will 
be in connection with objects, as was given 



Eeading from Books. 55 

m the^First Steps in reading. JN'ext objects 
may be described. Then as new words are 
found, each one will be used in the ex- 
pression of a thought and in the construc- 
tion of a sentence. 

The child may next be called upon to 
relate what has happened to him during 
the daj^, the incidents of a walk, or a play, 
or what he saw on his way to school. The 
teacher may tell a story or read something 
from a book, which the pupils will repro- 
duce. The children may bring their own 
little books, and each one may read a story 
which the others will reproduce. In these 
latter exercises another important educa- 
tional interest is served ;— the pupils are 
taught to listen to what is said, and to re- 
peat accurately what they heard. 

Spelling. In this course no place is 
given to distinctive spelling lessons, as it is 
believed that such lessons are productive of 
little else than mischief. 

JS'early all the real study of the child in- 
volves spelling as a necessary incident. If 
the forms of words which he has always 



56 The Sentence Method. _ 

seen are correct, the forms which he repro- 
duces will also be correct. To him a mis- 
spelled word is either no word at all, or an 
unknown element to be learned like other 
new words. The misspelled word is not 
recognized as expressing the idea of the 
correctly spelled one. The child "reads 
with his eye, and while reading is not con- 
scious of the sounds of words. In the en- 
deavor to express the thought in writing, 
his hand responds to the impulse which the 
thought gives, and in the way it was given. 
As the thought was occasioned by form, 
speaking to the eye, it will of necessity be 
reproduced in the same form. Good spell- 
ing is the result. 

Oral Elements. When oral spelling is 
practised, a disturbing element is intro- 
duced. The attention is partially diverted 
from the forms of the words to the names 
of the letters that compose them, and lan- 
guage, which should be used as a medium 
of thought, becomes the object of thought. 
The written and printed page is deprived 
of its distinctive character of being a direct 



Reading from Books. 57 

representative of thought; the written 
words must be translated into spoken words 
through the medium of letters ; and thus a 
direct barrier is interposed between the 
mind of the child and the thoughts con- 
tained in the lesson. This result is, of 
course, antagonistic to the eye and thought 
reading which is here advocated. 

The phonic analysis of words should 
have no place in the primary schools. 
Until the habits of thought reading and 
correct spelling are well established, such 
analysis is a positive evil. It makes the 
child conscious of the oral element of 
words, and as these do not correspond with 
the written elements, a double evil ensues : 
the mind has become directly conscious of 
language which it should use unconsciously 
or nearly so ; and it introduces a new set of 
elements antagonistic to the ones used in. 
the graphic expression. The habitual 
action of the muscles coming from one 
stimulus, upon which good spelling de- 
pends, is directly interfered with by 
another stimulus which urges to different 



68 The Sentence Method. 

results. Tlie antagonism is radical and 
irreconcilable, and bad spelling mnst result. 
The reason for tlie early introduction of 
the phonic element: — the securing of cor- 
rect pronunciation, may be accomplished in 
another way. The j)upils should be re- 
quired to pronounce their words slowly, so 
as to give to each sound its proper force, 
and here imitation of the words as spoken 
bj others is .the only w^ay to secure correct 
results. 

Correcting Mistakes. Under the sys- 
tem here advocated, mistakes in spelling, 
in punctuation, and in the use of capitals, 
etc., will be rare,, but they will sometimes 
occur. The teacher's work should be as 
correct as human vigilance can make it, 
and by this means the pupil's mistakes 
will be reduced to a minimum. . 

The mistakes usually made in school are 
the result of guess work or of deliberate 
judgment, when language has become a 
subject of direct consciousness. The mis- 
takes made when this system is practised 
are the results of some distracting element 



Reading from Books. 59 

which has for the moment disturbed ha- 
bitual action. In the first case the mis- 
takes, being in the line of habitual action, 
make a deep impression and tend to per- 
petuate themselves: in the second case, 
being opposed to habitual action, they 
make but little impression and are easily 
eradicated. 

Upon noticing any error of this kind, the 
teacher should at once erase it, and substi- 
tute the correct form. The direct at- 
tention should be for the moment turned 
to this correct form, and the pupil should 
write the word several times to make the 
impression deeper. This is one of the rare 
instances where the direct attention may be 
profitably diverted from the thought to 
the expression. ' The sooner the object is . 
accomplished and the attention again 
turned to the thought, the better for 
the pupil. The error should never be 
brought into prominence, and if it can be 
erased before the pupil has discovered it, 
all the better. 

If a child is in doubt, he should indicate 



60 The Sentence Method. 

it, and the teacher should supply the 
correct form. The reason for this is 
obvious. The doubt has arrested habit- 
ual action, and made the word or phrase 
the object of direct attention. If left 
without assistance, the mind must exercise 
a judgment without the elements upon 
which a correct judgment can be based, and 
the chances are about even that a mistake 
will be made. 

A mistake occurring under such circum- 
stances will make a deep impression, and 
will tend still further to distftd^ habitual 
-action, becoming the parent of numerous 
future mistakes. Constant practice under 
judicious direction is the only way to secure 
the highest and best results. 

Reading Matter. A great difficulty is 
experienced in obtaining a sufficient sup- 
ply of appropriate reading matter. The 
book given to any class should be within 
their comprehension, and it should be read 
through, or such parts of it as are found 
interesting. An ordinary first or second 
reader will last but a few weeks, and hence 



Reading from Books. 61 

there should be in every school several such 
readers, or some equivalent reading matter. 

By the exercise of judgment and tact, 
the teacher may be able to secure several 
such readers for use, and as an important 
part of the reading exercise is for the 
pupils to learn to listen, it is not strictly 
necessary that each member of the class be 
supplied with the same book. A single 
copy of a book may be passed from hand 
to hand, and in this way not only may the 
text-books be utilized, but story-books 
which the children have at home may be 
used with jDrofit. From this variety in 
reading, supplementing observation, the 
materials are gained for any amount of 
composition in the form of constructive and 
reproductive work. 

In general, children should be induced 
to read what they desire to know, and what- 
is worth knowing, and for the purpose of 
knowing. Hence, all through the course 
silent reading, followed by reproductive, 
should receive special attention. A story 
or sketch may be passed from child to child 



62 The Sentence Method. 

and read silently, and then reproduced in 
writing. Sometimes it may be reproduced 
orally, and indeed oral and written exer- 
cises should be constantly intermingled, so 
that children may become equally proficient 
in both forms of expression. 

Economies. It will be seen that read- 
ing, writing, spelling, and composition are 
simultaneous operations by this method, 
and that all are subordinated to the thought 
gained and expressed. In this way much 
time is gained, and the multitude of classes 
in ungraded schools is diminished. These 
subjects are all related to each other, and 
are dependent upon thought ; and to treat 
them separately is to destroy this relation 
and dej)endence. 

Again, by this method these subjects 
are all taught incidentally. To teach them 
separately and directly is to deprive writ- 
ten language of its legitimate function of 
being a direct representation of thought. 

General Suggestions. Too much stress 
cannot be laid upon the importance of care- 



Eeading from Books. 63 

fill and correct woi'k on the part of the 
teacher. Children at this earlj age are 
confiding, and are readj to take whatever 
the teacher has to give. " Bread or stones " 
are received with equal trustfulness. At 
the same time they are easily confused, and 
ill-directed teaching ajDpears in slovenly 
recitation. 

The teacher must not be anxious for im- 
mediate results. Anxiety in this direction 
is a constant temptation to adopt those 
specious methods by which apparent, 
rather than real progress is made. The 
letter, word, or phonic method will each 
day accomplish certain specific results, 
which can be weighed and measured. 
Teachers, parents, and friends see this, and 
are satisfied. But the results leave little 
impress of true mental growth. JS'aming 
letters and words, no matter in what order, 
and remembering them, is not necessarily 
reading. The thought must be reached, 
and everything else must be subordinated 
to this end. 

The child learns oral speech by degrees, 



64 The Sentence Method. 

adding word after word to his vocabulary, 
as its necessity is felt in expressing his own 
thought. Each new thought and new ex- 
pression is assimilated by use. In reading 
and writing, the same law holds. New 
elements should be introduced no faster 
than they can be made familiar by use. 
The expression follows the thought. In 
this way the mind of the pupil grows by 
receiving its proper aliment, and the power 
of expression increases with each new ac- 
quisition of thought. 

In this process, time is an important ele- 
ment. An effort to cram defeats its own 
ends. Hurry retards. Crowding the 
memory with words weakens it for 
thought. Filling the mind with the forms 
of language that convey no thought, is like 
filling the stomach with husks, — no diges- 
tion follows. Worse than this, the mind 
overburdened with this crude material loses 
all power and inclination for real work. 

The time necessary for each step cannot 
be precisely given, as it must vary with 
the capacity of the pupil, the tact of the 



Reading fkom Books. 65 

teacher, and various conditions of the school. 
The pupils should not be advanced from 
the " first step " until they are able to give 
oral expression to any well defined thought 
without hesitation. The average time for 
this will be about one month. The " sec- 
ond step " will require but few lessons. Its 
objects should be accomplished in a week. 
In the " First Step " the practice of al- 
lowing the children to construct the con- 
crete relations, or, as they term it, " make 
true '' the thought before reading it, should 
be continued several weeks. This exercise, 
more than any other, arouses activity, both 
physical and mental, and excites a perma- 
nent interest in the work. Tiie average 
time for accomplishing all the w^ork of the 
" Third Step " will be about two months, 
giving three months for the preliminary 
exercises before books are introduced. 

When the children read a sentence that 
cannot be literally illustrated, they should 
feel that it is true in thought, and here 
comes in the exercise of the imagination. 
In the development and culture of this 



6t5 The Sentence Method. 

faculty, the teacher may find some diffi- 
culty. With their limited experience, chil- 
dren with active imaginations have not yet 
learned to distinguish between outward 
facts and thoughts which exist only in their 
own minds. This want of discrimination 
is often mistaken for moral delinquency. 
The remedy is found in the close observa- 
tion of objects and facts and the literal de- 
scriptions which follow such observations. 
Making sentences ''true" is one of these 
corrective exercises. 

A very common mistake should be care- 
fully avoided, and that is the endeavor to 
fill the mind with the matured and con- 
densed results of scientific investigation. 
True education is a growth. The knowl- 
edge upon which the mind feels must be 
assimilated. This knowledge must be ad- 
ministered in such proportions and under 
such conditions as will best promote as- 
similation. The effort to cram ideas is as 
fatal as that of cramming words. The 
reasoning processes of maturity do not be- 
long to childhood. The true education 



Eeading from Books. 67 

does not deal so much in the results of 
scientific discovery as in its methods. 
Tliese methods are: first, the observation 
of objects, by which facts are obtained, and 
the observing powers cultivated; second, 
the expression of these facts in oral and 
written language, by which process the 
facts become clearly defined and perma- 
nently retained ; third, the observation of 
relations, by which comparisons and gene- 
ralizations are made, and general principles 
reached; and fourth, the application of 
these principles, by which the more subtle 
relations are discovered and the reasoning 
powers are fully developed. To reverse 
this process and commence with the rea- 
soning, would be equivalent to laying upon 
the shoulders of the child the burdens 
which only belong to mature manhood. 
No matter with how much care this may 
be done, or what may be the apparent im- 
mediate results, the permanent result is 
distortion and deformity. 



Be. Graff (E. V.) PRACTICAL PHONICS. A comprehensive 
study of Pronunciation, forming a complete guide to tlie study 
(Sf the elementary sounds of the English Language, and con- 
taining 3000 words of difficult pronunciation, with diacritical 
marks according to Webster's Dictionary. Cloth, 13mo., 
pp. 108 75 

cPOCKET PRONUNCIATION BOOK, containing the 3000 

words of difficult pronunciation, with diacritical marks accord- 
ing to Webster's Dictionary. Manilla, 16mo., pp. 47 15 

Uie School Room Ouide, embodying the instruction given by 

the author at Teacher's Institutes in New York and other 
States, and especially intended to assist Public School Teach- 
ers in the practical work of the school- room. Tenth Edition, 
with many additions and corrections. Cloth, 12mo., pp. 449-. 1 50 

The Song Budget. A collection of Songsand Music for schools 

and educational gatherings. Paper, small 4to., pp. 72 15 

The School-Room Chorus. A collection of 200 Songs, suitable 

for Public and Private Schools. Boards, small 4to., pp. 147. . 35 

Farnham (Geo. L.) THE SENTENCE METHOD of teaching 
Reading, Writing, and Spell '-^ - A Manual for Teachers. 
Cloth, 12mo., pp. 50 50 

Fitch (Joshua G.) The Art of Questioning. Second Edition. 

Paper, 12mo., pp. 36 _ ' 15 

The Art of Securing Attention. Paper, 16mo., pp. 48 15 

ITendrick (Mary F.) ^ series of Questions in English and Ameri- 
can Literature, prepared for Class-Drill and Private Study. 
Second Edition. Boards, 12mo., pp. 100, interleaved ..- 35 

Moose (James H.) Studies in Articulation: a study and drill-book 
in the alphabetic elements of the English language. Fourth 
Thousand. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 70.. 50 

On the Province of Ilethods of Teaching. A professional 

study. With an introduction by Prof. Charles W. Bennett, 

D. D. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 376 1 00 

IIiijj;lies (James L.) MISTAKES IN TEACHING. American 

Edition, witJi Contents a7id Index. Cloth, 16mo.,pp. 13.") 50 

New 'York STATE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. Being 
the questions given at all the Examinations for State Ccrtiti- 
cates from the beginning to the present time, embracing 3000 
questions in Reading, Writing, Drawing, Arithmetic, Geog- 
raphy, Grammar, United States History, General History, 
Algebra, Geometry, Book-Keeping, Composition, Rhetoric, 
Literature, Civil Government, Physiology, Zoology, Botany, 
Geology, Mineralogy, Physics, Methods, School Economy, 
School Law, together with Latin as an optional in the place 
of Geometry. To which is added a List of the Successful 
Candidates. Flexible cloth, lOmo., pp. 191 - 25 



Huntington (Rt. Rev. F. D.) Unconscious Tuition. Second 

Edition.. Paper, 16mo., pp. 45 15 

Northam (Henry C.) Civil Government for Common Schools. 
Prepared as a manual for Public Instruction in tlie State 
of New York. To which are appended the Constitution of 
the 8tate of New York, as amended at the election of 1880, 
the Constitution of the United States, and the Declaration of 
Independence. Sixth Edition, mostly from entirely new 
plates. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 185 75 

Periodicals. The School Bulletin and New York State Educa- 
tional Journal. Established 1874. Monthly, 16 pp., 10x14. 
Per Year.. _ 1 00 

Bound Vols. I— VII, Cloth, 200 pp. , each 2 00 

The New Education and Kindergarten Messenger. Established 

1877. Monthly, 16 pp., 7x10. Per year 1 00 

TOPICS OF THE DAY, a Monthly Leaflet for Supplemen- 

tary Reading in Public Schools. 2 pp., 6x9. Per year... 36 

^THE SCHOOL ROOM. A Mpnthly Journal of Practical 

Help to Young Teachers. 16 no., 7x11. Per year 50 

Pooler (Charles T.) Chart of Cii4 Government. A list of the 
Law-]\[aking Powers and Officers, arransred aecording to 
the similarity of their duties, in the United States, State of 
New York, County, Town, School-District, City, and In- 

coiporated Village. Cloth, 16 mo. , folded 25 

The Fame, in sheets 12x18, per hundred. 5 00 

HINTS ON TEACHING ORTHOEPY. Paper, 12mo., 

pp. 15 10 

Regents' Questions. Ten Editions. Complete with Key. The 
Regents' Questions from the first examination in 1866. Being 
the Questions for the preliminary examinations for admission 
to the University of the State of New York, prepared by the 
Regents of the University, and participated in simultaneously 
by more than 250 academies, forming a basis for the distri- 
bution of more than a million of dollars. Jf£d Edition, to 

June, 1880. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 408 2 00 

Complete, without Key 1 00 

Arithmetic, 1153 Questions. 25 

Key to Arithmetic 25 

Geography, 1687 Questions '-.I'-I".^^1"1!''1^I]]I^ 25 

Key to Geography 25 

Grammar, 2665 Questions.. ""'""".'"''""" 25 

Grammar ««fZ /f<?^/ with References to Leading Grammars.]^ 1 00 

Spelling, 4400 Words .... .-go 

1000 Arithmetic Questions, Card- board slips and Keyl"".'" 1 00 
Any book in this list will be promptly sent on receipt of price. 
L Address C. W. BARDEEN, Syracuse, N. Y. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

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